AS MEDIDAS RETALIATÓRIAS COMO MECANISMOS DE INDUÇÃO AO CUMPRIMENTO DO DIREITO DA OMC À LUZ DAS TEORIAS DAS RELAÇÕES INTERNACIONAIS | DOI: 10.12818/P.0304-2340.2018v73p251

Autores

  • Fernando Lopes Ferraz Elias

Resumo

No âmbito da Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC), a adjudicação compulsória das controvérsias, com a aplicação interestatal de medidas retaliatórias autorizadas pelo Órgão de Solução de Controvérsias (OSC), transcende a tradicional lógica dos instrumentos jurídicos internacionais de indução à conformidade. Na literatura, há uma carência de pesquisa acadêmica, teórica e empírica, sobre o cumprimento estatal das decisões dos regimes jurídicos internacionais. Especificamente, são poucos os trabalhos, a partir das teorias das relações internacionais, a respeito da retaliação como mecanismo de indução ao cumprimento do direito da OMC, não obstante tratar-se de relevante tema de investigação. A retaliação nas disputas comerciais internacionais, motivada por decisões políticas e capaz de gerar impactos econômicos, somente pode ser compreendida em toda a sua plenitude mediante ferramentas metodológicas interdisciplinares. Dessa forma, utilizou-se a interdisciplinaridade entre as relações internacionais e o direito internacional como método de pesquisa, que combina trabalhos empíricos com a revisão da literatura das teorias das relações internacionais, apesar das dificuldades de se estudar vários campos de pesquisa ao mesmo tempo. Auferiu-se a incapacidade dos mecanismos retaliatórios de induzirem o cumprimento do direito da OMC por parte dos Estados poderosos (realismo). Num cálculo de custo e benefício, a partir de interesses racionais e individuais dos Estados, as contramedidas incentivaram, na verdade, o descumprimento das decisões do OSC (institucionalismo). Ademais, os interesses de influentes grupos domésticos, escamoteados por questões de grande impacto nacional, pressionaram os Estados a manterem seus comportamentos violadores (liberalismo). Por fim, remanesceu a percepção interna de ilegitimidade das decisões do OSC, levando os Estados a decidirem pelo descumprimento (construtivismo).



Referências

ABBOT, Kenneth W. International relations theory, international law, and the regime governing atrocities in international conflicts. Studies in Transnational Legal Policy, v. 36, p. 127 - 158. 2004.

______. Toward a richer institutionalism for international law and policy. Journal of International Law and International Relations, v. 1, n.1 -2, p. 09 - 34. 2005.

ACEVES, William J. Institutionalist theory and international legal scholarship. American University Journal of International Law and Policy, v. 12, n. 2, p. 227 - 266. 1997.

ALEMANNO, Alberto. Judicial enforcement of the WTO hormones ruling within the European Community: toward EC liability for the non-implementation of WTO dispute settlement decisions? Harvard International Law Journal, v. 45, n. 2, 547 - 561. 2004.

ALI, Asim Imdad. Non-compliance and ultimate remedies under the WTO dispute settlement system. Journal of Public and International Affairs, v. 14, p. 01 - 22. 2003.

ALKOBY, Asher. Theories of compliance with international law and challenge of cultural difference. Journal of International Law and International Relations, v. 4, p. 151 - 198. 2008.

ALTHUNAYAN, T. Dealing with the fragmented international legal environment: WTO, international tax and internal tax regulations. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2010. 253 p.

ALVAREZ, Jose E. Hegemonic international law revisited. American Journal of International Law, v. 97, n. 4, p. 873 - 887. 2003.

______. The new dispute settlers: (half) truths and consequences. Texas International Law Journal, v. 38, p. 405 - 444. 2003.

AREND, Anthony Clark. Do legal rules matter? international law and international politics. Virginia Journal of International Law, v. 38, p. 107 - 154. 1998.

BARADARAN, Shima; FINDLEY, Michael; NIELSON, Daniel; SHARMAN, J. C. Does international law matter? Minnesota Law Review, v. 97, n. 3, p. 743 - 837. 2013.

BECK, Robert J. International law and international relations: the prospects for interdisciplinary collaboration. Journal of International Legal Studies, v. 1, n. 2, p. 119 - 150. 1995.

BEEKARRY, Navin. International anti-money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism regulatory strategy: a critical analysis of compliance determinants in international law. Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business, v. 31, n. 1, p. 137 - 194. 2011.

BENEDETTI, Mariangela. The enforcement of global decisions: EU countermeasures against the US Byrd Amendment. In: CASSESE, Sabino. Global administrative law: the casebook. 3. ed. Rome-New York: IRPA-IILJ, 2012. p. 43 - 49.

BERMANN, Suzanne. EC-hormones and the case for an express WTO postretaliation procedure. Columbia Law Review, v. 107, n. 1, p. 131 - 168. 2007.

BERNSTEIN, Jason; SKULLY, David. Calculating trade damages in the context of the world trade organization's dispute settlement process. Review of Agricultural Economics, v. 25, n. 2, p. 385 - 398. 2003.

BRADFORD, Anu. When the WTO works, and how it fails. Virginia Journal of International Law, v. 51, n. 1, p. 01 - 56, 2010 - 2011.

BREUSS, Fritz. Economic integration, EU-US trade conflicts and WTO dispute settlement. European Integration online Papers (EIoP), v. 9, n. 12, p. 01 - 28. 2005.

______. WTO dispute settlement: an economic analysis of four EU–US mini trade wars — a survey. Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade, Bank Papers, v. 4, n. 4, p. 275 - 315. 2004.

BRIMEYER, Benjamin L. Bananas, beef, and compliance in the world trade organization: the inability of the WTO dispute settlement process to achieve compliance from superpower nations. Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, v. 10, p. 133 - 168. 2001.

BRONCKERS, Marco; BROEK, Naboth van den. Financial compensation in the WTO: improving the remedies of the WTO dispute settlement. Journal of International Economic Law, v. 8, n. 1, p. 101 - 126. 2005.

BURLEY, Anne-Marie Slaughter. International law and international relations theory: a dual agenda. American Journal of International Law, v. 87, n. 2, p. 205 - 239. 1993.

BUSCH, Marc L. Democracy, consultation, and the paneling of disputes under GATT. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, v. 44, n. 4, p. 425 - 446. 2000.

______; REINHARDT, Eric. Bargaining in the shadow of the law: early settlement in GATT⁄WTO disputes. Fordham International Law Journal, v. 24, n. 1, p. 158 - 172. 2001.

______; ______. Transatlantic trade conflicts and GATT/WTO dispute settlement. In: PETERSMANN, Ernst-Ulrich; POLLACK, Mark A. (Coords.) Transatlantic economic disputes: the EU, the US and the WTO. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. p. 465 - 485.

CHARNOVITZ, Steve. Rethinking WTO trade sanctions. American Journal of International Law, v. 95, n. 4, p. 792 - 832. 2001.

______. The WTO’s problematic “last resort” against noncompliance. Aussenwirtschaft, v. 57, n. 4, p. 409 - 439. 2002.

CHO, Sungjoon. The nature of remedies in international trade law. Pittsburgh Law Review, v. 65, p. 763 - 796. 2004.

CLARK, Hunter R.; BOGRAN, Amy; HANSON, Hayley. The WTO ruling on foreign sales corporations: costliest battle yet in an escalating trade war between the United States and the European Union. Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, v. 10, n. 2, p. 291 - 321. 2001.

COLARES, Juscelino F. The limits of WTO adjudication: is compliance the problem? Journal of International Economic Law, v. 14, n. 2, p. 403 - 436. 2011.

CROSSEN, Teall. Multilateral environmental agreements and the compliance continuum. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, v. 16, p. 473 - 500. 2004.

CUPPETT, Bryan Scott. Case study on world trade organization dispute settlement: European Communities. Measures affecting meat and meatproducts (hormones), complaint by the United States. 73 f. 2000. Thesis for degree of Master of Arts Political Science of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia.

DAVEY, William J. Compliance problems in WTO dispute settlement. Cornell International Law Journal, v. 42, n. 1, p. 119 - 128. 2009.

______. The WTO dispute settlement system: the first ten years. Journal of International Economic Law, v. 8, n. 1, p. 17 - 50. 2005.

DILLON JR., Thomas J. The World Trade Organization: a new legal order for world trade? Michigan Journal of International Law, v. 16, n. 2, p. 349 - 402. 1995.

DU, Michael M. Standard of review under the SPS agreement after EC-hormones II. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, v. 59, p. 441 - 459. 2010.

GINSBURG, Tom; MCADAMS, Richard H. Adjudicating in anarchy: an expressive theory of international dispute resolution. William and Mary Law Review, v. 45, n. 4, p. 1229 - 1340. 2004.

GINSBURG, Tom; SHAFFER, Gregory. How does international law work? what empirical research shows. Minnesota Legal Studies Research, Paper n. 09-54, p. 01 - 26. 2009.

GOLDSMITH, Jack. Sovereignty, international relations theory, and international law. Stanford Law Review, v. 52, p. 959 - 986. 2000.

______; POSNER, Eric A. The new international law scholarship. Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, v. 34, n. 2, p. 463 - 484. 2006.

GREEN, Robert A. Antilegalistic approaches to resolving disputes between governments: a comparison of the international tax and trade regimes. Yale Journal of International Law, v. 23, n. 1, p. 79 - 139. 1998.

GUZMAN, Andrew T. A compliance-based theory of international law. California Law Review, v. 90, p. 1823 - 1887. 2002.

______. Global governance and the WTO. Harvard International Law Journal, v. 45, n. 2, p. 303 - 352. 2004.

______. How international law works: a ra¬tional choice theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. 260 p.

HAAS, Peter M. Why comply, or some hypotheses in search of an analyst. Studies in Transnational Legal Policy, v. 29, p. 21 - 48. 1997.

HAFNER-BURTON, Emilie M.; VICTOR, David G.; LUPU, Yonatan. Political science research on international law: the state of the field. The American Journal of International Law, v. 106, p. 47 - 97. 2012.

HATHAWAY, Oona A. Between power and principle: a political theory of international law. Yale Law School Legal Scholarship Repository, p. 469 - 536, jan. 2005.

HENRIK Horn; MAVROIDIS, Petros C.; NORDSTRÖM, Håkan. Is the use of the WTO dispute settlement system biased? CEPR Discussion Paper 2340, p. 01 - 30. 1999.

HOFMANN, Tobias; KIM, Soo Yeon. Does trade comply? The economic effect(ivenes)s of WTO dispute settlement. Trabalho apresentado no encontro anual da Sociedade de Estudos Internacionais intitulado “Governança Global: Autoridade Política em Transição”, Montreal/Quebec, Canadá, 16 mar. 2011. Disponível em: . Acesso em: 11 jan. 2017.

HUDEC, Robert E. Broadening the scope of remedies in WTO dispute settlement. In: WEISS, Friedl (Coord.). Improving WTO dispute settlement procedures: issues and lessons from the practice of other international courts and tribunals. London: Cameron May, 2000. p. 345 - 376.

______. GATT dispute settlement after the Tokyo round: an unfinished business. Cornell International Law Journal, v. 13, n. 2, p. 145 - 203. 1980.

______. The new WTO dispute settlement procedure: an overview of the first three years. Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, v. 8, n. 1, p. 01 - 54. 1999.

IRISH, Adam; KU, Charlotte; DIEHL, Paul F. Bridging the international law-international relations divide: taking stock of progress. Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, v. 41, n. 2, p. 357 - 388. 2013.

ISLAM, M. Rafiqul. Recent UE trade sanctions on the US to induce compliance with the WTO ruling in the foreign sales corporations case: its policy contradiction revisited. Journal of World Trade, v. 38, n. 3, p. 471 - 490. 2004.

JACKSON, John H. The role and effectiveness of the WTO dispute settlement mechanism. In: COLLINS, Susan M.; RODRIK, Dani (Coords). Brookings Trade Forum. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000. p. 179 - 219.

JEPPERSON, Ronald L.; WENDT, Alexander; KATZENSTEIN, Peter J. Norms, identity, and culture in national security. In: KATZENSTEIN, Peter J. (Coord.) The culture of national security. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. p. 33 - 75.

JOSLING, Tim; ROBERTS, Donna; HASSAN, Ayesha. The beef-hormone dispute and its implications for trade policy. Disponível em: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242073421_The_Beef-Hormone_Dispute_and_its_Implications_for_Trade_Policy>. Acesso em: 13 jan. 2017.

KATZENSTEIN, Peter J.; KEOHANE, Robert O.; KRASNER, Stephen D. International organization and the study of world politics. International Organization, v. 52, n. 4, p. 645 - 685. 1998.

KELLY, Claire R. The value vacuum: self-enforcing regimes and the dilution of the normative. Michigan Journal of International Law, v. 22, p. 673 - 734. 2001.

KEOHANE, Robert O. International institutions: two approaches. International Studies Quarterly, v. 32, n. 4, p. 379 - 396. 1988.

KINGSBURY, Benedict. The concept of compliance as a function of competing conceptions of international law. Michigan Journal of International Law, v. 19, p. 345 - 372. 1998.

KLEINER, Marc. Bananas, airplanes and the WTO: prohibited export subsidies. University of Miami International and Comparative Law Review, v. 10, p. 129 - 142. 2002.

KOH, Harold Hongju. The 1998 frankel lecture: bringing international law home. Houston Law Review, v. 35, n. 3, p. 623 - 682. 1998.

KOZLINA, Simon. WTO panel report in United States - tax treatment of ‘foreign sales corporations’. University of New South Wales Law Journal, v. 24, n. 1, p. 515 - 529. 2001.

KREPS, Sarah Elizabeth; AREND, Anthony Clark. Why states follow the rules: toward a positional theory of adherence to international legal regimes. Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law, v. 16, n. 2, p. 331 - 411. 2006.

KUNZE, Katharina. Solving EC-Bananas: the WTO dispute settlement mechanism and developing countries. 2009. 66 f. Thesis for degree of Master of Law and Business, Bucerius Law School / Otto Beisheim School of Management, Hamburgo.

LAWRENCE, Robert J. Crimes and punishments: retaliation under the WTO. Washington, DC: Peterson Institute, 2003. 120 p.

LIMA, Thiago. O desafio de ganhar e levar: um estudo exploratório sobre a reação dos EUA em contestações agrícolas na OMC. Cadernos Cedec (Edição Especial Cedec/INEU), n. 84, p. 01 - 27, nov. 2009.

LIN, Tsai-Yu. Compliance proceedings under article 21.5 of DSU and Doha proposed reform. The International Lawyer, v. 39, n. 4, p. 915 - 936. 2005.

MAVROIDIS, Petros C. Remedies in the WTO legal system: between a rock and a hard place. European Journal of International Law, v. 11, n. 4, p. 763 - 814. 2000.

______. The meeting in Doha. Journal of World Trade, v. 36, n. 2, p. 167 - 169. 2002.

MCGIVERN, Brendan P. Seeking compliance with WTO rulings: theory, practice and alternatives. International Lawyer (ABA), v. 36, n. 1, p. 141 - 158. 2002.

MCGUINNESS, Margaret E. Exploring the limits of international human rights law. Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, v. 34, n. 2, p. 393 - 422. 2006.

MEHLING, Michael A. Betwixt scylla and charybdis: the concept of effectiveness in international environmental law. Finnish Yearbook of International Law, v. 13, p. 129 - 182. 2002.

MORA, Miquel Montana I. A GATT with teeth: law wins over politics in the resolution of international trade disputes. Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, v. 31, n. 1, p. 103 - 180. 1993.

MOSOTI, Victor. Does Africa need the WTO dispute settlement system? In: SHAFFER, Gregory; ______; QURESHI, Asif (Coords). International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD), Resource Paper n. 5, p. 71 - 88. 2003.

NGANGJOH, Yenkong; RIOS-HERRAN, Roberto. WTO dispute settlement system and the issue of compliance: multilateralizing the enforcement mechanism. Manchester Journal of International Economic Law, v. 1, n. 3, p. 15 - 30. 2004.

NZELIBE, Jide. The credibility imperative: the political dynamics of retaliation in the world trade organization's dispute resolution mechanism. Theoretical Inquiries in Law, v. 6, n. 1, p. 215 - 254. 2005.

O’CONNOR, Bernard. Remedies in the world trade organization dispute settlement system: the bananas and hormones cases. Journal of World Trade, v. 38, n. 2. p. 245 - 266. 2004.

OLOFSON, Fredrik. Trade gone bananas: a study of political control over trade. 2012. 34 f. Thesis for degree of Master in of University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg. 2012.

PAUWELYN, Joost H. Enforcement and countermeasures in the WTO: rules are rules - toward a more collective approach. American Journal of International Law, v. 94, p. 335 -347. 2000.

PELC, Krzysztof J. Seeking escape: the use of escape clauses in international trade agreements. International Studies Quarterly, v. 53, p. 349 - 368. 2009.

POŠIVÁKOVÁ, Ľudmila. The relationship between US and EU as members of WTO. Disponível em: <https://www.law.muni.cz/content/cs/>. Acesso em: 02 jan. 2017.

PRINCEN, Sebastiaan. EC compliance with WTO law: the interplay of law and politics. European Journal of International Law, v. 15, n. 3, p. 555 - 574. 2004.

RAGOSTA, John; JONEJA, Navin; ZELDOVICH, Mikhail. WTO dispute settlement: the system is flawed and must be fixed. International Lawyer (ABA), v. 37, n. 3. p. 697 - 752. 2003.

RAUSTIALA, Kal. Refining the limits of international law. Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, v. 34, p. 01 - 21. 2006.

ROCHESTER, J. Martin. The rise and fall of international organization as a field of study. International Organization, v. 40, n. 04, p. 777 - 813. 1986.

SCHAEFER, Matthew. National review of WTO dispute settlement reports: in the name of sovereignty or enhanced WTO rule compliance? St. John's Journal of Legal Commentary, v. 11, n. 2, p. 307 - 350. 1996.

SCHLEICHER, David. Liberal international law theory and the United Nations mission in Kosovo: ideas and practice. Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law, v. 1, n. 1, p. 179 - 236. 2005.

SCHWARTZ, Warren F.; SYKES, Alan O. The economic structure of renegotiation and dispute resolution in the World Trade Organization. Journal of Legal Studies, v. 31, n. 1, p. S179 - S204. 2002.

SHAFFER, Gregory. How to make the WTO dispute settlement system work for developing countries: some proactive developing country strategies. In: ______; MOSOTI, Victor; QURESHI, Asif (Coords). International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD), Resource Paper n. 5, p. 01 - 65. 2003.

______; ELSIG, Manfred; PUIG, Sergio. The extensive (but fragile) authority of the WTO appellate body. Law and Contemporary Problems, vol. 79, n. 1, p. 237 - 273. 2016.

SPAMANN, Holger. The myth of “rebalancing” retaliation in WTO dispute settlement practice. Journal of International Economic Law, v. 9, p. 31 - 79. 2006.

SPILKER, Gabriele. Compliance with WTO dispute rulings. NCCR Trade Regulation, Working Paper n. 2011/25, p. 01 - 20. 2012.

STEINBACH, Armin. EC liability for non-compliance with decisions of the WTO DSB: the lack of judicial protection persists. Journal of World Trade, v. 43, n. 5, p. 1047 - 1070. 2009.

SYKES, Alan O. Regulatory protectionism and the of international trade. The University of Chicago Law Review, v. 66, n. 1, p. 01 - 46. 1999.

TAYLOR, C. O’Neal. Impossible cases: lessons from the first decade of WTO dispute settlement. Journal of International Law, v. 28, n. 2, p. 309 - 447. 2007.

TRACHTMAN, Joel P. The future of international law: global government. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. 167 p.

______. The WTO cathedral. Stanford Journal of International Law, v. 43, n. 1, p. 127 -168. 2007.

VARELLA, M. D. Dificuldades de implementação das decisões da OMC: um estudo de caso a partir do contencioso pneus. Revista Direito GV, v. 19, n. 1, p. 53 -68. 2014.

______. Internacionalização do direito. Brasília: UniCEUB, 2013. 500 p.

WILSON, Bruce. Compliance by WTO members with adverse WTO dispute settlement ruling: the record to date. Journal of International Economic Law, v. 10, n. 2, p. 397 - 403. 2007.

WÜGER, Daniel. The never ending story: the implementation phase in the dispute between the EC and the United States on hormone-treated beef. Law and Policy in International Business, v. 33, n. 4, p. 777 - 825. 2002.

YOUNG, Oran R. International regimes: toward a new theory of institutions. World Politics, v. 39, n. 1, p. 104 - 122. 1986.

YU, Xuesong A. The Byrd's view might not give you a whole picture - the battle in the World Trade Organization on the continued dumping and subsidy offset act of 2000. Florida Journal of International Law, v. 17, p. 417 - 438. 2005.

Downloads

Publicado

2018-12-20

Edição

Seção

Artigos